Intergroup Relations in Post-Conflict Societies: Promoting Intergroup Contact and Forgiveness among Former Adversaries

Mgr.art. Shpend Voca

Doctoral thesis

Abstract:

A vital step to harmony in post-conflict societies is reconciliation that refers to the process of building positive relationships among former adversaries. Achieving reconciliation is necessary to ensure that former adversaries do not return to violence. However, establishing reconciliation is challenging due to the persisting animosity in the aftermath of conflict. Direct intergroup contact between former adversaries and forgiving former adversaries for past transgressions are two crucial steps to reconciliation. Unfortunately, both direct intergroup contact and forgiveness are missing in post-conflict societies. Therefore, in this dissertation, we investigated factors that both promote and hinder these crucial steps to reconciliation, drawing on influential theories from psychology of intergroup relations. In four studies, we examined whether indirect intergroup contact with a former adversary (i.e., any contact that is not face to face), distinct social identities (e.g., ethnic or national identity) and victimhood beliefs (i.e., beliefs about past suffering of one’s own group and a former adversary) are associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary. In all studies, we tested mechanisms underlying the link between indirect intergroup contact, distinct social identities, victimhood beliefs and willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary – intergroup empathy and trust. In Study 1 and Study 2, we focused on two indirect forms of intergroup contact – extended contact (i.e., knowing about contact between members of one’s ingroup and the former adversary) and mass mediated contact (i.e., information about the former adversary from mass media). We simultaneously considered the effects of positive and negative extended intergroup contact before, during, and after the war, and positive and negative mass mediated contact. Study 1 was carried out with Albanian sample (N = 232) and Study 2 with Serbian sample (N = 129) that represent the two sides of the conflict in Kosovo. Positive extended intergroup contact in different time periods was associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary indirectly through higher empathy and trust in Study 2. Negative extended intergroup contact in different time periods was associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary directly in Study 1 and indirectly through lower empathy and trust in Study 2. Positive (but not negative) mass mediated contact was indirectly associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary through higher empathy in both Study 1 and 2. These findings speak to the beneficial effects of positive extended and positive mass mediated intergroup contact and warn against detrimental effects of negative extended intergroup contact on willingness to engage in direct contact with and forgive the former adversary, both important steps to reconciliation in post-conflict societies. In Study 3 with the sample presented in Study 1 (Albanian participants were asked to fill in two separate questionnaires), we focused on the role of distinct social identities – subordinate Albanian and superordinate Kosovar identities – and two forms of victimhood beliefs – competitive (i.e., belief that one’s group suffered more than a former adversary) and inclusive victimhood (i.e., belief that both one’s group and a former adversary suffered to a similar extent). We simultaneously tested the association between subordinate Albanian and superordinate Kosovar identities, and competitive and inclusive victimhood beliefs on willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary. We found that identification with the subordinate Albanian identity was associated with lower willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adv

Abstract:

ersary via lower empathy. At the same time, identification with a superordinate Kosovar identity was associated with higher willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary via higher empathy. Inclusive (but not competitive) victimhood associated with higher willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary through higher empathy and trust. These results corroborate evidence about the beneficial effects of superordinate identity and inclusive victimhood and detrimental effects of subordinate identity on forgiveness and extend it to yet another vital precondition of reconciliation – willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary in post-conflict societies. In Study 4 with an Albanian sample (N = 161) in Kosovo, we built on the results of correlational Study 3 in that we tested the effects of inclusive and competitive victimhood beliefs on willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary experimentally. We confirmed the outcomes of Study 3 in that we found that induced inclusive (but not competitive) victimhood led to higher willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary through higher empathy and trust, as compared to control. This is the first causal evidence about the positive effect of inclusive victimhood on willingness to engage in direct intergroup contact and its underlying mechanisms. Overall, the results of our studies indicated that indirect intergroup contact, distinct social identities and victimhood beliefs can promote or hinder reconciliation depending on contact valence, on identification with superordinate or subordinate identities and on victimhood construals. The outcomes of our research suggest that encouraging people to share their positive experiences about former adversary with other ingroup members and journalists to transmit positive information about the former adversary could contribute to improving intergroup relations in post-conflict societies. Similarly, increasing the salience of superordinate identity that is inclusive (entailing also former adversaries) and increasing awareness of suffering of former adversaries can enhance reconciliation. At the same time, our results warn against the negative consequences of sharing negative information about the former adversary with ingroup members, of emphasizing the subordinate identity (exclusive of former adversaries), and of downplaying the suffering of the former adversary for reconciliation.

Abstract:

A vital step to harmony in post-conflict societies is reconciliation that refers to the process of building positive relationships among former adversaries. Achieving reconciliation is necessary to ensure that former adversaries do not return to violence. However, establishing reconciliation is challenging due to the persisting animosity in the aftermath of conflict. Direct intergroup contact between former adversaries and forgiving former adversaries for past transgressions are two crucial steps to reconciliation. Unfortunately, both direct intergroup contact and forgiveness are missing in post-conflict societies. Therefore, in this dissertation, we investigated factors that both promote and hinder these crucial steps to reconciliation, drawing on influential theories from psychology of intergroup relations. In four studies, we examined whether indirect intergroup contact with a former adversary (i.e., any contact that is not face to face), distinct social identities (e.g., ethnic or national identity) and victimhood beliefs (i.e., beliefs about past suffering of one’s own group and a former adversary) are associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary. In all studies, we tested mechanisms underlying the link between indirect intergroup contact, distinct social identities, victimhood beliefs and willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary – intergroup empathy and trust. In Study 1 and Study 2, we focused on two indirect forms of intergroup contact – extended contact (i.e., knowing about contact between members of one’s ingroup and the former adversary) and mass mediated contact (i.e., information about the former adversary from mass media). We simultaneously considered the effects of positive and negative extended intergroup contact before, during, and after the war, and positive and negative mass mediated contact. Study 1 was carried out with Albanian sample (N = 232) and Study 2 with Serbian sample (N = 129) that represent the two sides of the conflict in Kosovo. Positive extended intergroup contact in different time periods was associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary indirectly through higher empathy and trust in Study 2. Negative extended intergroup contact in different time periods was associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary directly in Study 1 and indirectly through lower empathy and trust in Study 2. Positive (but not negative) mass mediated contact was indirectly associated with willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary through higher empathy in both Study 1 and 2. These findings speak to the beneficial effects of positive extended and positive mass mediated intergroup contact and warn against detrimental effects of negative extended intergroup contact on willingness to engage in direct contact with and forgive the former adversary, both important steps to reconciliation in post-conflict societies. In Study 3 with the sample presented in Study 1 (Albanian participants were asked to fill in two separate questionnaires), we focused on the role of distinct social identities – subordinate Albanian and superordinate Kosovar identities – and two forms of victimhood beliefs – competitive (i.e., belief that one’s group suffered more than a former adversary) and inclusive victimhood (i.e., belief that both one’s group and a former adversary suffered to a similar extent). We simultaneously tested the association between subordinate Albanian and superordinate Kosovar identities, and competitive and inclusive victimhood beliefs on willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary. We found that identification with the subordinate Albanian identity was associated with lower willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adv

Abstract:

ersary via lower empathy. At the same time, identification with a superordinate Kosovar identity was associated with higher willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary via higher empathy. Inclusive (but not competitive) victimhood associated with higher willingness to engage in direct contact with and to forgive the former adversary through higher empathy and trust. These results corroborate evidence about the beneficial effects of superordinate identity and inclusive victimhood and detrimental effects of subordinate identity on forgiveness and extend it to yet another vital precondition of reconciliation – willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary in post-conflict societies. In Study 4 with an Albanian sample (N = 161) in Kosovo, we built on the results of correlational Study 3 in that we tested the effects of inclusive and competitive victimhood beliefs on willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary experimentally. We confirmed the outcomes of Study 3 in that we found that induced inclusive (but not competitive) victimhood led to higher willingness to engage in direct contact with the former adversary through higher empathy and trust, as compared to control. This is the first causal evidence about the positive effect of inclusive victimhood on willingness to engage in direct intergroup contact and its underlying mechanisms. Overall, the results of our studies indicated that indirect intergroup contact, distinct social identities and victimhood beliefs can promote or hinder reconciliation depending on contact valence, on identification with superordinate or subordinate identities and on victimhood construals. The outcomes of our research suggest that encouraging people to share their positive experiences about former adversary with other ingroup members and journalists to transmit positive information about the former adversary could contribute to improving intergroup relations in post-conflict societies. Similarly, increasing the salience of superordinate identity that is inclusive (entailing also former adversaries) and increasing awareness of suffering of former adversaries can enhance reconciliation. At the same time, our results warn against the negative consequences of sharing negative information about the former adversary with ingroup members, of emphasizing the subordinate identity (exclusive of former adversaries), and of downplaying the suffering of the former adversary for reconciliation.

Keywords

indirect intergroup contact, social identity, victimhood beliefs, reconciliation, intergroup empathy, intergroup trust

Language used: English

Date on which the thesis was submitted / produced: 23. 4. 2020

Thesis defence

• Date of defence: 24. 6. 2020
• Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Sylvie Graf, Ph.D.
• Reader: Özden Melis Ulug, Ph.D., doc. Emilio Paolo Visintin

Masaryk University

Faculty of Social Studies

Doctoral programme / field:
Psychology / Social psychology